Taking the diet of cows into consideration in designing payments to reduce enteric methane emissions on dairy farms.

Enteric fermentation from dairy cows is a major source of methane. Significantly and rapidly reducing those emissions would be a powerful lever to mitigate climate change. For a given productivity level, introducing fodder with high sources of n-3 content, such as grass or linseed, in the feed ration of dairy cows both improves the milk nutritional profile and reduces enteric methane emissions per liter. Changing cows' diet may represent additional costs for dairy farmers and calls for the implementation of payments for environmental services to support the transition. This paper analyzes 2 design elements influencing the effectiveness of a payment conditioned toward the reduction of enteric methane emissions: (1) the choice of emission indicator capturing the effect of farmers' practices, and (2) the payment amount relative to the additional milk production costs incurred. Using representative farm-level economic data from the French farm accountancy data network, we compare enteric methane emissions per liter of milk calculated with an Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Tier 2 method, to baseline emissions from a Tier 3 method accounting for diet effects. We also quantify the additional milk production costs of integrating more grass in the fodder systems by estimating variable cost functions for different dairy systems in France. Our results show the relevance of using an emission indicator sensitive to diet effects, and that the significance and direction of the additional costs for producing milk with a diet containing more grass differ according to the production basin and the current share of grasslands in the fodder crop rotation. We emphasize the importance of developing payments for environmental services with well-defined environmental indicators accounting for the technical problems addressed, and the need to better characterize heterogeneous funding requirements for supporting a large-scale adoption of more environment-friendly practices by farmers.

Beyond rural vs urban differences: A close match in european preferences in some basic wildlife management and conservation principles.

The EU biodiversity strategy for 2030 sets out a framework of commitments and actions to tackle the main drivers of biodiversity loss. Such framework needs to be built on a whole-of-society approach to biodiversity protection, mobilizing private and public funding. In this context, our goal was estimating societal support and preferences about some basic wildlife management principles, which may be useful to inform EU decision-makers about societal priorities and other additional funding sources for wildlife conservation. A discrete choice experiment was conducted by 2415 inhabitants in six European countries (Spain, France, Italy, UK, Germany, Sweden), including residents in both rural (47% of respondents) and urban areas. Our findings reveal a clear pattern across western Europe with similar trends along the studied countries, and even between rural and urban citizens, on some basic wildlife management principles. According to our survey, payments for environmental services contribute to achieving a higher well-being from European citizens in any of the prospective wildlife programs considered, which suggests it is an acceptable tool to share out funds for biodiversity conservation. In addition, managing scarce species is preferred over managing too abundant species; management in forest, agricultural and aquatic habitats is prioritized over that in urban landscapes; and management in protected areas is preferred over management in non-protected ones. These findings suggest that there is a common culture in Europe related to the management of wildlife even when considering citizens with contrasted ways of life: rural vs urban citizens from northern to southwestern Europe. Overall, this study may help in the design of wildlife management policies that maximize societal acceptability and gather higher support.

The Potential of Payment for Ecosystem Services for Crop Wild Relative Conservation.

Crop wild relatives (CWR) have proven to be very valuable in agricultural breeding programs but remain a relatively under-utilized and under-protected resource. CWR have provided resistance to pests and diseases, abiotic stress tolerance, quality improvements and yield increases with the annual contribution of these traits to agriculture estimated at USD 115 billion globally and are considered to possess many valuable traits that have not yet been explored. The use of the genetic diversity found in CWR for breeding provides much-needed resilience to modern agricultural systems and has great potential to help sustainably increase agricultural production to feed a growing world population in the face of climate change and other stresses. A number of CWR taxa are at risk, however, necessitating coordinated local, national, regional and global efforts to preserve the genetic diversity of these plants through complementary in situ and ex situ conservation efforts. We discuss the absence of adequate institutional frameworks to incentivize CWR conservation services and propose payment for ecosystem services (PES) as an under-explored mechanism for financing these efforts. Such mechanisms could serve as a potentially powerful tool for enhancing the long-term protection of CWR.

Overstated carbon emission reductions from voluntary REDD+ projects in the Brazilian Amazon.

Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation (REDD+) has gained international attention over the past decade, as manifested in both United Nations policy discussions and hundreds of voluntary projects launched to earn carbon-offset credits. There are ongoing discussions about whether and how projects should be integrated into national climate change mitigation efforts under the Paris Agreement. One consideration is whether these projects have generated additional impacts over and above national policies and other measures. To help inform these discussions, we compare the crediting baselines established ex-ante by voluntary REDD+ projects in the Brazilian Amazon to counterfactuals constructed ex-post based on the quasi-experimental synthetic control method. We find that the crediting baselines assume consistently higher deforestation than counterfactual forest loss in synthetic control sites. This gap is partially due to decreased deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon during the early implementation phase of the REDD+ projects considered here. This suggests that forest carbon finance must strike a balance between controlling conservation investment risk and ensuring the environmental integrity of carbon emission offsets. Relatedly, our results point to the need to better align project- and national-level carbon accounting.

What factors influence the willingness of protected area communities to relocate? China's ecological relocation policy for Dashanbao Protected Area.

Resettlement of local people from protected areas (PAs) has been regarded as a preferred method to alleviate human disturbance and environmental pressure. Lack of knowledge about local communities' perceptions of resettlement, however, can lead to failed relocation projects and negative impacts on environmental sustainability and livelihoods. To better understand local communities' perception of relocation in PAs, we examine factors that affect local communities' willingness to relocate in Dashanbao Protected Area (DPA), an important location for conservation of the rare Black-necked Crane and the subject of a large-scale relocation policy in China. We surveyed 512 households in DPA and used multiple logistic regression to identify which factors predict local communities' willingness to relocate. Then, we examined how local communities' opinions of different payment for environmental services programs (PES) impacted their willingness to relocate. The results indicated that participation in a PES program for wetland conservation significantly decreases willingness, while distance from scenic spots and roads increases willingness. Furthermore, participants in the PES program for wetlands had a greater positive perception of the benefits from the DPA. Concern about a sustainable livelihood and loss of a sense of belonging represent the two main categories or 'clusters' of reasons explaining unwillingness to relocate. Our results suggest that prior experience with PES programs influences attitudes about relocation, and that integrating the perception of local communities into policy is important to the success of conservation programs relying on relocation. Managers and decision-makers could usefully consider the coupled relationships between sustainable livelihood strategies such as PES, attitudes toward relocation, and conservation benefits when working with communities in PAs toward enhanced livelihoods and conservation.

Arranjos institucionais para a implantação de programa municipal de pagamento por serviços ambientais hídricos: estudo de caso de São José dos Campos (SP) / Institutional arrangements for implementation of a municipal payment program for water environmental services: case study of Sao José dos Campos (SP)

RESUMO O uso de instrumentos econômicos como indutores de qualidade ambiental vem ganhando destaque mundial. Na última década, o Brasil vivenciou a implantação de programas de Pagamento por Serviços Ambientais (PSA) para promover a restauração e a conservação de recursos naturais, com reconhecidos ganhos ambientais. Considerada a incipiência do uso dessa estratégia como política pública municipal, o presente trabalho foi desenvolvido com o objetivo de apresentar o estudo de caso do projeto de PSA em implantação no município de São José dos Campos (SP), na microbacia do ribeirão das Couves. A realização desta pesquisa foi subsidiada por revisão bibliográfica, análise documental e entrevistas estruturadas, contemplando desde a sua gênese, em 2010, até o ano de 2017. Com base nos resultados, foi possível verificar que os agentes públicos municipais invitaram esforços durante os cinco primeiros anos para adquirir conhecimento, estabelecer meios regulatórios, garantir recursos econômicos, envolver agentes sociais afetados por essa política, até que fosse possível iniciar o projeto. Nesse período foi estabelecido o arranjo institucional, motivado pela viabilidade de aprendizado das entidades parceiras e oportunidade de contribuição e partilha. Os principais ganhos com a implantação do projeto relacionam-se ao incremento de vegetação nativa e à melhoria de qualidade das águas na microbacia que são utilizadas como manancial para abastecimento público local. Entre os desafios destacados pelos gestores públicos está a inexistência de recursos humanos, materiais e financeiros dedicados à iniciativa. Por fim, destaca-se que o aprendizado gerado pelo projeto servirá ao município para a continuidade do programa e a projetos semelhantes.

ABSTRACT The use of economic instruments as inductors of environmental quality has gained worldwide prominence. In the last decade, Brazil experienced the implementation of Payment for Environmental Services (PES) programs to promote the restoration and conservation of natural resources, with recognized environmental gains. Considering the incipience of the use of this strategy as a municipal public policy, the present work was developed with the purpose of presenting the case study of the PES project in implantation in the municipality of São José dos Campos, in the Couves creek. The accomplishment of this research was subsidized by bibliographical revision, documental analysis and structured interviews, contemplating from its genesis, in 2010, until 2017. From the results, it was possible to verify that the municipal public agents invited efforts during the first five years to acquire knowledge, to establish regulatory means, to guarantee economic resources, to involve social agents affected by this policy, until it was possible to start the project. During this period the institutional arrangement was established, motivated by the viability of learning of the partner entities and the opportunity of contribution and sharing. The main gains from the implementation of the project are related to the increase of native vegetation and the improvement of water quality in the watershed that are used as source for local public supply. Among the challenges highlighted by public managers is the inexistence of resources: human, material, and financial dedicated to the initiative. Finally, it is highlighted that the learning generated by the project will serve the municipality for the continuity of the program and similar projects.

Monitoramento da qualidade de águas em programas de pagamento por serviços ambientais hídricos: estudo de caso no município de São José dos Campos/SP / Water quality monitoring in payment for environmental services programs: case study in São José dos Campos/SP

RESUMO Na última década, verificou-se, no Brasil, o aumento do número de programas de Pagamento por Serviços Ambientais (PSA) voltados à conservação quanti-qualitativa de águas nos territórios. Entre as principais demandas de aprimoramento desses programas, está a necessidade de comprovação dos serviços ecossistêmicos prestados. É nesse contexto que o presente trabalho foi desenvolvido com o objetivo de avaliar as diretrizes norteadoras do monitoramento da qualidade das águas em bacias contempladas por PSA, bem como verificar a aplicabilidade dessas medidas para a microbacia do Ribeirão das Couves, em São José dos Campos, São Paulo. Para a realização desta pesquisa, utilizou-se, além da pesquisa bibliográfica exploratória sobre a temática, investigação histórica dos documentos da Secretaria Municipal de Meio Ambiente e análise dos dados mensais de qualidade de água fornecidos pela concessionária municipal. A partir dos resultados foi possível verificar que, na atualidade, as águas do Ribeirão das Couves não atendem aos limites da Classe 1 para o parâmetro Escherichia coli. Em suas diferentes fases, o PSA demanda condições de monitoramento diferenciadas em relação ao número de pontos de amostragem e à frequência das análises. Por fim, mesmo entendendo como essencial a caracterização de todos os parâmetros que compõem o Índice de Qualidade de Águas (IQA), este trabalho evidenciou um conjunto mínimo de indicadores para a avaliação dos incrementos de qualidade de águas em bacias contempladas por PSA.

ABSTRACT In the last decade, it was found in Brazil an increase in the number of Payment for Environmental Services (PES) programs focused on quantitative and qualitative conservation of waters in the territories. Among the main demands for improvement of these programs, there is a need to proof the provided ecosystem services. It is in this context that the present research was developed to evaluate the directives of water quality monitoring in watershed covered by PES and to assess the applicability of these to the watershed of the Couves Stream in São José dos Campos, São Paulo. For this applied research, besides the bibliographical research on the subject, a historical research in the documents of the Municipal Secretary of Environment and a monthly analysis of the water quality data provided by municipal utility were performed. From the results, it was verified that, at present, the Couves Stream waters do not meet the limits of Class 1 for the parameter Escherichia coli. At its various stages, PES demands differentiated monitoring conditions in relation to the number of sampling points and the frequency of analysis. Finally, even understanding the characterization of all parameters that compose the Water Quality Index (WQI) as essential, this study showed a minimum set of indicators for assessing the increases of water quality in watersheds covered by PES.

Pagamento por serviços ambientais (psa) e práticas de agricultura sustentável: contribuições da análise do comportamento / Payments for environmental services (pes) and practices of sustainable agriculture: contributions from behavior analysis

O Pagamento por Serviços Ambientais (PSA) é uma estratégia utilizada desde o final da década de 1990 para recompensar os serviços ambientais prestados por agricultores, financiando ações de recomposição da vegetação em áreas desmatadas, práticas agrícolas de baixo impacto já desempenhadas, e incentivando para que estes passem a adotar práticas sustentáveis de agricultura. O objetivo deste artigo é conhecer os princípios contidos nas estratégias de PSA para a solução de problemas ambientais, bem como discutir como são implantados na prática, a partir da interpretação analítico-comportamental de uma experiência de PSA na região de Ribeirão Preto, Estado de São Paulo. Reconhece-se os argumentos que validam os ganhos ambientais obtidos, e considera-se a necessidade de problematizar a suficiência dos incentivos financeiros na promoção de mudanças comportamentais e sua manutenção ao longo do tempo (AU).

This paper aims to know the Payment for Environmental Services (PES) principles and its implementation in practice, based on a behavior-analytic interpretation of a PES experience in the State of São Paulo, region of Ribeirão Preto. PES program is a strategy used since the 1990s to give financial incentives for farmers to provide environmental services. PES is a tool to fund actions of restoration at deforested areas, recognize low-impact practices already performed, and promote the adoption of sustainable practices. The arguments that support environmental gains provided by PES are recognized, but the effectiveness of financial incentives to promote behavior change and its maintenance for long term is questionable (AU).

El Pago por Servicios Ambientales (PSA) es una estrategia que se viene utilizando desde finales de la década de 1990 para recompensar los servicios ambientales prestados por agricultores, mediante la financiación de acciones de recomposición vegetal en áreas deforestadas, prácticas agrícolas de bajo impacto que ya vienen siendo implementadas, e incentivando la adopción de prácticas de agricultura sustentable. El objetivo de este artículo es reconocer los principios de las estrategias de PSA para la solución de problemas ambientales, y debatir la forma en la que éstas se dan en la práctica, a partir de la interpretación analítico-comportamental de una experiencia de PSA en la región de Ribeirão Preto, Estado de São Paulo, Brasil. Se reconocen los argumentos que certifican los beneficios ambientales alcanzados, pero se considera necesario evaluar la capacidad que tienen los incentivos financieros en la promoción de cambios comportamentales y el mantenimiento de estos en el tiempo (AU).

Payment for multiple forest benefits alters the effect of tree disease on optimal forest rotation length.

Forests deliver multiple benefits both to their owners and to wider society. However, a wave of forest pests and pathogens is threatening this worldwide. In this paper we examine the effect of disease on the optimal rotation length of a single-aged, single rotation forest when a payment for non-timber benefits, which is offered to private forest owners to partly internalise the social values of forest management, is included. Using a generalisable bioeconomic framework we show how this payment counteracts the negative economic effect of disease by increasing the optimal rotation length, and under some restrictive conditions, even makes it optimal to never harvest the forest. The analysis shows a range of complex interactions between factors including the rate of spread of infection and the impact of disease on the value of harvested timber and non-timber benefits. A key result is that the effect of disease on the optimal rotation length is dependent on whether the disease affects the timber benefit only compared to when it affects both timber and non-timber benefits. Our framework can be extended to incorporate multiple ecosystem services delivered by forests and details of how disease can affect their production, thus facilitating a wide range of applications.

Brazil's worst mining disaster: Corporations must be compelled to pay the actual environmental costs.

In November 2015, a large mine-tailing dam owned by Samarco Corporation collapsed in Brazil, generating a massive wave of toxic mud that spread down the Doce River, killing 20 people and affecting biodiversity across hundreds of kilometers of river, riparian lands, and Atlantic coast. Besides the disaster's serious human and socioeconomic tolls, we estimate the regional loss of environmental services to be ~US$521 million per year. Although our estimate is conservative, it is still six times higher than the fine imposed on Samarco by Brazilian environmental authorities. To reduce such disparities between estimated damages and levied fines, we advocate for an environmental bond policy that considers potential risks and environmental services that could possibly be impacted by irresponsible mining activity. Environmental bonds and insurance are commonly used policy instruments in many countries, but there are no clear environmental bond policies in Brazil. Environmental bonds are likely to be more effective at securing environmental restitution than post-disaster fines, which generally are inadequate and often unpaid. We estimate that at least 126 mining dams in Brazil are vulnerable to failure in the forthcoming years. Any such event could have severe social-environmental consequences, underscoring the need for effective disaster-management strategies for large-scale mining operations.

Itaipu royalties: The role of the hydroelectric sector in water resource management.

For countries dependent on hydroelectricity, water scarcity poses a real risk. Hydroelectric plants are among the most vulnerable enterprises to climate change. Investing in the conservation of the hydrographic basin is a solution found by the hydropower sector. Given the importance of the Itaipu plant to the energy matrix of Brazil and Paraguay, the aim of this study is to review the current distribution of royalties from Itaipu, using the hydrographic basin as a of criterion of analysis. Approximately 98.73% of the Itaipu basin is in Brazil. The flow contributes 99% of the total electricity generated there, while the drop height of the water contributes only 1%. Under the current policy, royalties are shared equally between Brazil and Paraguay. In the proposed approach, each country would receive a percentage for their participation in the drop height and water flow in the output of the turbines, which are intrinsic factors for electricity generation. Thus, Brazil would receive 98.35% of the royalties and Paraguay, 1.65%. The inclusion of the hydrographic basin as a criterion for the distribution of royalties will promote more efficient water resource management, since the payment will be distributed throughout the basin of the plant. The methodology can be applied to hydroelectric projects worldwide.

O uso de estratégias focadas em resultados para o controle da poluição hídrica no Brasil / The use of goal-oriented strategies for water pollution control in Brazil

RESUMO O presente artigo objetivou apresentar uma visão geral sobre o emprego de estratégias focadas em resultados (EFR), tais como a de pagamento por resultados (PPR) e a de pagamento por serviços ambientais (PSA), na redução e no controle da poluição hídrica em áreas urbanas e rurais do país. Para isso, considerando-se sempre o objetivo da Gestão Integrada de Recursos Hídricos (GIRH), duas experiências de alcance nacional foram revisitadas: a do Programa Despoluição de Bacias Hidrográficas (Prodes) e a do Programa Produtor de Águas, ambos executados pela Agência Nacional de Águas (ANA), o primeiro iniciado há mais de uma década. Esses programas ilustram abordagens bem-sucedidas de aproximação do poder público com os setores usuários de água, nesse caso, os setores de saneamento e agricultura, respectivamente. Por fim, foram discutidas a aplicabilidade e as perspectivas para a implementação de novas iniciativas de EFR para GIRH no Brasil.

ABSTRACT This paper presents an overview about the use of goal-oriented strategies, such as output-based aid (OBA) and payment for environmental services (PES), for water pollution abatement and control in urban and rural areas throughout the country. Thus, considering the goal of implementing IWRM, two nation-wide experiences are reviewed: the River Basin Clean-Up Program (PRODES) and the Water Producer Program, both run by the National Water Agency (ANA), the former initiated over a decade ago. They illustrate successful ways to bring public authorities and water users together, in this case, sanitation services and landowners, respectively. Finally, it is discussed the applicability and perspectives for carrying out new goal-oriented initiatives aimed at IWRM in Brazil.

Pagamento por serviços ambientais na gestão de recursos hídricos: o caso de Extrema (MG) / Payment for environmental services in water resources management: the case of Extrema (MG), Brazil

RESUMOO estudo teve como principal objetivo analisar o Programa Conservador das Águas, no município de Extrema, Minas Gerais. O caso de Extrema teve destaque por ser a primeira iniciativa municipal a realizar pagamentos para proprietários rurais em troca da garantia do fornecimento de serviços ambientais visando à melhoria dos recursos hídricos. Foi constatado que a escassez de água iminente em grandes centros urbanos é fator condicionante para priorizar áreas de atuação de programas de pagamento por serviços ambientais na gestão de recursos hídricos. O trabalho conclui que os resultados dessa primeira experiência em projetos de pagamento por serviços ambientais podem auxiliar na evolução dos cenários futuros da gestão de recursos hídricos sob a perspectiva do desenvolvimento rural mais sustentável.

ABSTRACTThis study aimed to analyze the Conservador das Águas program, in the municipality of Extrema, Minas Gerais, Brazil. The case of Extrema got highlighted because it was the first municipal initiative to pay the landowners in return for guaranteeing the supply of environmental services aimed at improving water resources. It was found that the imminent water shortages in large urban centers can be considered a conditioning factor in prioritizing operation areas of payment for environmental services programs in water resources management. The study concludes that the results of this first experience in payment for environmental services projects can assist in the development of future scenarios of water resource management from the perspective of a more sustainable rural development.

A ranking of net national contributions to climate change mitigation through tropical forest conservation.

Deforestation in tropical regions causes 15% of global anthropogenic carbon emissions and reduces the mitigation potential of carbon sequestration services. A global market failure occurs as the value of many ecosystem services provided by forests is not recognised by the markets. Identifying the contribution of individual countries to tropical carbon stocks and sequestration might help identify responsibilities and facilitate debate towards the correction of the market failure through international payments for ecosystem services. We compare and rank tropical countries' contributions by estimating carbon sequestration services vs. emissions disservices. The annual value of tropical carbon sequestration services in 2010 from 88 tropical countries was estimated to range from $2.8 to $30.7 billion, using market and social prices of carbon respectively. Democratic Republic of Congo, India and Sudan contribute the highest net carbon sequestration, whereas Brazil, Nigeria and Indonesia are the highest net emitters.

Local participation in biodiversity conservation initiatives: a comparative analysis of different models in South East Mexico.

In Mexico, biodiversity conservation is primarily implemented through three schemes: 1) protected areas, 2) payment-based schemes for environmental services, and 3) community-based conservation, officially recognized in some cases as Indigenous and Community Conserved Areas. In this paper we compare levels of local participation across conservation schemes. Through a survey applied to 670 households across six communities in Southeast Mexico, we document local participation during the creation, design, and implementation of the management plan of different conservation schemes. To analyze the data, we first calculated the frequency of participation at the three different stages mentioned, then created a participation index that characterizes the presence and relative intensity of local participation for each conservation scheme. Results showed that there is a low level of local participation across all the conservation schemes explored in this study. Nonetheless, the payment for environmental services had the highest local participation while the protected areas had the least. Our findings suggest that local participation in biodiversity conservation schemes is not a predictable outcome of a specific (community-based) model, thus implying that other factors might be important in determining local participation. This has implications on future strategies that seek to encourage local involvement in conservation.

Rural aquaculture as a sustainable alternative for forest conservation in the Monarch Butterfly Biosphere Reserve, Mexico.

Forest conservation plays a significant role in environmental sustainability. In Mexico only 8.48 million ha of forest are used for conservation of biodiversity. Payment for Environmental Services in the Monarch Butterfly Biosphere Reserve, one of the most important national protected areas, contributes to the conservation of these forests. In the Reserve, production of rainbow trout has been important for the rural communities who need to conserve the forest cover in order to maintain the hibernation cycle of the butterfly. Aquaculture is a highly productive activity for these protected areas, since it harnesses the existing water resources. In this study, changes from 1999 to 2012 in vegetation and land-use cover in the El Lindero basin within the Reserve were evaluated in order to determine the conservation status and to consider the feasibility of aquaculture as a means of sustainable development at community level. Evaluation involved stereoscopic interpretation of digital aerial photographs from 1999 to 2012 at 1:10,000 scale, comparative analysis by orthocorrected mosaics and restitution on the mosaics. Between 1999 and 2012, forested land recovered by 28.57 ha (2.70%) at the expense of non-forested areas, although forest degradation was 3.59%. Forest density increased by 16.87%. In the 46 ha outside the Reserve, deforestation spread by 0.26%, and land use change was 0.11%. The trend towards change in forest cover is closely related to conservation programmes, particularly payment for not extracting timber, reforestation campaigns and surveillance, whose effects have been exploited for the development of rural aquaculture; this is a new way to improve the socio-economic status of the population, to avoid logging and to achieve environmental sustainability in the Reserve.

Role of forest conservation in lessening land degradation in a temperate region: the Monarch Butterfly Biosphere Reserve, Mexico.

With international concern about the rates of deforestation worldwide, particular attention has been paid to Latin America. Forest conservation programmes in Mexico include Payment for Environmental Services (PES), a scheme that has been successfully introduced in the Monarch Butterfly Biosphere Reserve. To seek further evidence of the role of PES in lessening land degradation processes in a temperate region, the conservation state of the Cerro Prieto ejido within the Reserve was assessed by an analysis of changes in vegetation cover and land-use between 1971 and 2013. There were no changes in the total forest surface area, but the relative proportions of the different classes of cover density had changed. In 1971, closed and semi-closed forest occupied 247.81 ha and 5.38 ha, 82.33% and 1.79% of the total area of the ejido, respectively. By 2013, closed forest had decreased to 230.38 ha (76.54% of the ejido), and semi-closed cover was 17.23 ha (5.72% of the ejido), suggesting that some semi-closed forest had achieved closed status. The final balance between forest losses and recovery was: 29.63 ha were lost, whereas 13.72 ha were recovered. Losses were mainly linked to a sanitation harvest programme to control the bark beetle Scolytus mundus. Ecotourism associated with forest conservation in the Cerro Prieto ejido has been considered by inhabitants as a focal alternative for economic development. Consequently, it is essential to develop a well-planned and solidly structured approach based on social cohesion to foster a community-led sustainable development at local level.